Post-Harvest Loses in Poultry, Its Management Key Initiatives & Opportunities

Author: 

Nagesh Sonale, Rokade, J.J., Bhanja S.K. & Tiwari A.K.

ICAR-Central Avian Research institute, Bareilly, U.P. 243122

India today is the one of the world’s largest producer of eggs and broiler meat. The poultry industry in India has undergone a major shift in structure and operation during the last two decades transforming from a mere backyard activity into a major industry with the presence of a large number of integrated players. This transformation has involved a sizeable investment in breeding, hatching, rearing and other processing activities. The rapid expansion of poultry production has been associated with technological change and increasing scale of production units, in addition to constant efforts in upgradation, modification. The growing adoption of a healthy diet, increasing popularity of protein-rich and eggetarian diets among fitness enthusiasts and gymgoers, and various initiatives by governing organizations to enhance the productivity and quality of poultry products represent some of the key factors driving the market. Application of new technologies also paved the way for the multifold and multifaceted growth in poultry together with allied sectors, not only in size but also in productivity, sophistication and quality. Owing to these many stepping stones, India acquired its top position as 3^rd in egg production with 129 billion eggs in 2021-2022 and the poultry meat production was 8^th with 5.1MMT. The Indian poultry market size reached INR 1,905.3 billion in 2022. Looking forward, IMARC Group expects the market to reach INR 3,477.8 billion by 2028, exhibiting a growth rate (CAGR) of 10.18% during 2023-2028. However, India positioned it’s in top rank but still its own per capita availability of eggs and meat is 91 and 4kg respectively which is much lesser than the global consumption and also even to the ICMR recommendation which is of 180 eggs and 11kg meat per person/annum.

          Though India did countless development in poultry production but it undergoes through post-harvest loses in case of egg and live birds.  One of the major problems in the broiler industry is pre-slaughter stress losses, responsible for a great part of the losses before arrival at the abattoir (Death on Arrivals - DOA).  In egg production, egg producers can suffer economic losses of around 10% due to eggs becoming cracked during routine handling. Cracked egg renders to lose its physical quality, increases the risk of eggs becoming infected with disease-causing organisms leads to monetary loss. Hegazy (2016) revealed that post-harvest losses due to supply chain of eggs in India were in the range of 10 to 25 percent. He also noticed that the highest loss was observed in Livestock produce such as meat, poultry, and fish was 30% (amounting to $48 billion). After slaughter, the major crucial factor contributing to the post- harvest losses could be the absence of proper infrastructure such as adequate cold chains, underutilization of by-products such as offal’s, feathers, etc. (Bechoff et al. 2022). These losses of both egg and meat industry when computed on monetary basis impart huge loss. Now it’s the time to address post-harvest loss because we were already sufficient in the quantity, at present situation quality of the produce should be valued and focussed more in order to avoid losses. With this background this chapter has been framed to discuss in detail about post-harvest loss in poultry and the contributing factors, its mitigating steps to overcome this loses.

Post-harvest losses Definition

 According to Kader 2002, post-harvest losses can be defined as the degradation in both quantity and quality of a food production from harvest to consumption. Quality losses are intrinsic in nature leading to internal and external biochemical changes leading to changes in colour, flavour, nutritive value and caloric composition of food (poultry meat/ egg), calorific value etc. with or without significant change in weight /volume. These losses are generally more common in developing countries. It is mainly caused due to poor post-harvest management practices such as loss in weight due to moisture loss, physical damage, spoilage or rotting due to senescence and bacterial/ fungal infections etc. Losses occurring during harvesting operation and thereafter were considered as post-harvest loss for assessment (MOFPI 2022).

Post-harvest losses in poultry

Egg is the most precious commodity, whose biological value is very high compacted with full of protein and healthy fats. Further, eggs are the cheapest commodity which can be offered even by the poorest. When we considered poultry meat, it is the cheapest meat among other livestock, having high USFA with good protein percentage, devoid of religious taboos. But eggs and poultry meat are having highly perishable tendency to lose its absolute value very quickly in the absence of an expensive cold chain. The overall post-harvest loss of poultry meat was 5.63 percent. In a report by FAO (2011) on global food losses and food waste, an estimated loss of 3.1 percent at the production level, 0.7 percent during post-harvest handling and storage, 5 percent during processing and packaging and 4 percent during distribution for Europe including Russia for meat including poultry meat. The over all losses from farm to fork could 12-15%, this is in the developed countries. These loses could be more in developing and under developed nations which has to be targeted.

I. Post-harvest loses in Eggs

Among all livestock by-product eggs contain the highest biological value (or gold standard) for protein. One egg has only 75 calories but 7 grams of high-quality protein, 5 grams of fat, and 1.6 grams of saturated fat, along with iron, vitamins, minerals, and carotenoids. The egg is a powerhouse of disease-fighting nutrients like lutein and zeaxanthin. These carotenoids may reduce the risk of age-related macular degeneration, the leading cause of blindness in older adults. And brain development and memory may be enhanced by the choline content of eggs. This all component is present in the egg yolk and egg albumin, which are covered and protected by egg shell, it is composed of calcium carbonate this cover can easily break with rough handling or improper transportation. Break or crack in the shell can lead to high economic loses as well as affect nutrient quality of the whole eggs. The overall total post-harvest losses in eggs were 6.55 percent. A study of ICAR-CIPHET (2015) reported overall post-harvest losses of 7.19 percent for eggs at the national level. Hegazy (2016) in his study detailed on post-harvest losses in India was mainly due to lack of supply chain of eggs were in the range of 10 to 25 percent. Postharvest losses result from direct physical losses and quality losses that minimise products' economic value (Herlekar, et al., 2014). In extreme cases, these losses can amount to 80% of total output. Reducing postharvest losses is recognised as an essential component of food security (Lat, 2017). Losses are particularly high for underdeveloped countries (about 50%) and most of them are attributed to inefficient technology and low expertise in the handling of produce and lack of logistical support. Since in India, the egg production is not equally distributed in all the state, where transportation from high to low producing states are mandatory. At this situation, transporting the eggs at huge quantity in tropical condition without any proper cold chain facility can lead to increase in quality loses ultimately results in post-harvest loss.

Types of post-harvest loses in Eggs

          Average eggshell thickness is about 0.30 mm. There are about 10,000 pores on the shell surface each one 0.0017 mm in diameter totalling 1.8 mm 2 in open space to support gas exchange and moisture loss. The egg shell composed of calcium carbonate covering which can be easily break by normal pressing also, due to which special care must be taken during all farm operation from collection to till it reaching to end consumer.  The occurrence of shell breakage can be categorized into a number of stages. Opportunities for breakage occur: 1) before lay, 2) at the point of lay, 3) during collection, 4) during processing, and 5) during shipping. The incidence of breakage at these stages varies. It is approximately 3.5 % at the point of lay; ranges of 1 to 11% during the collection stage (Eggleton and Ross, 1971) and is approximately 1% during shipping. The degree of breakage during collection is quite high, because equipment maintenance and management such as gathering intervals, belt speeds, and number of right-angle turns has a major influence at this stage (Hamilton et al., 1979). The major postharvest losses in eggs were categorized as physical, chemical and microbiological losses.

Physical Losses: Handling and collection: Occurs mainly due to improper handling and collection of eggs at the farm especially eggshell having damages such as cracks, body checks, blind checks, toe cracks, leaker conditions, etc. (Aboonajmi, 2020).Grading/sorting: Grading done to fetch a better price for their produce. Except in some big commercial farms, sorting/ grading was done manually which facilitates more losses further. Packaging: The eggs were also packaged in a variety of materials such as bamboo baskets, plastic crates/boxes/bags and cardboard/plastic eggs trays to attract more consumers. When the packaging was done by automated machines, the losses observed were low in comparison to the packaging done manually. Storage and transportation: The farmers stored the eggs at normal temperature in godowns/ at home. The eggs were stored for a short duration of time ranging 1-2 days before they were picked up by the aggregator/ retailer/ wholesaler. Few eggs ended up cracked or leaked during transfer from the godown. In a few cases, eggs ended up getting spoiled when in storage for a longer time as there was no provision for temperature and humidity control. During transportation, improper stacking of eggs trays as well as inadequate packaging were observed as the main reason for losses.

ICAR-CIPHET (2015)

Chemical losses: During egg storage, some components of albumen and yolk may alter and tend to deteriorate egg quality. The main factors directly associated to egg deterioration are temperature and relative humidity conditions, besides manipulation and storage time. An intense transformation occurs 72 h after posture, the dense layer of albumen becomes liquid, and consequently loses its quality. Approaching preservation methods and shortening the time duration between laying and transportation to the retail market can helps to get rid of chemical losses (Oliveira, 2013). Spoilage of eggs starts as a result of cracking the eggshell, improper washing, and inadequate storage conditions. The chemical changes associated with eggs were as follows:

• Loss of water
• Loss of carbon dioxide
• Change in pH 7.6 to 9.7 in egg white
• Thick albumin changes to watery/thin.
• The breakdown of proteins
• Increase in the amount of free ammonia.
• Increase in water-soluble inorganic phosphorus.
• Increase in free fatty acid in yolk fat.
• Deterioration in the flavour of eggs occurs by the invasion of micro-organisms and by the changes that take place in fat and protein

Microbial deterioration and losses

Under healthy breeding conditions, the egg content is sterile. However, the eggshell surface can be contaminated by a diversified microflora. The microbial contamination can lead to spoilage problems. Bacteria are more common spoilage organism. Bacteria cause rots in eggs, whereas Fungi causes spots in eggs. The microflora of the eggshell is dominated by Gram-positive bacteria such as Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Aerococcus and micrococcus. Other minor contaminants are Gram-negative bacteria, such as Salmonella, Escherichia (Caner, 2015).

II. Post-harvest loses in poultry Meat

The poultry meat is considered as light/white meat as compared to red meat. It is economical, easy to prepare and easy to digest, having a number of desirable nutritional and organoleptic characteristics. Contains high protein of 21% with all essential amino acids required for growth. The fat content is less and it is rich in unsaturated fatty acids. The gross poultry meat composition includes water (65-70%), protein (21%), fat (4%), calcium (29mg/kg), magnesium (15mg/kg), phosphorus (238mg/kg), iron (0.486mg/kg) and vit B complex. Poultry meat is very much perishable because of its dense nutrient’s composition, The numbers of poultry handled, transported and slaughtered is greater than any other livestock and it is estimated that 87% (FAO, 2011). Broiler death losses during transport average 0.2% but can vary greatly. But the shrinkage losses in broilers varied from 10-21% during transportation from farm to slaughter house including pre-slaughter fasting of birds and indecorous handling of birds. Improper transportation also creates stressful environment to the birds leading to affect the welfare conditions of the birds which is of major concern now a day.

(ICAR-CIPHET 2015)

more mortalities and in broilers, poor health increases transport losses.  It is difficult to remove hens from furnished colony cages and this can result in more injuries.  Design innovations are needed. 

Types of post-harvest loses in poultry Meat

ICAR-CIPHET (2012) conducted a study on harvest and post-harvest losses of major crops and livestock produce in India. The total post-harvest losses in meat and poultry meat were 2.23 percent and 3.65 percent, respectively. ICAR-CIPHET (2015) study reported that postharvest losses for meat and poultry meat were 2.71 percent and 6.74 percent, respectively. High losses noted during the transport to the market were attributed mainly due to a lack of feed for the animals and poor transportation conditions (animals dehydrated and losing weight). The post-harvest losses in meat can be classified as physiological, chemical and microbiological losses.

 Physiological Losses: Physiological loses include mainly Weight loss (shrinkage) in birds during transport Stress while handling the birds (catching). Poor handling while catching before placing into the transportation cages contributes physiological changes (Davies et al., 1998). Bone breaks, dislocations and bruising are common injuries which can occur when catching poultry, resulting in pain and poor carcase quality (Mukhedkar 2022).

Transportation- Transportation is one of the fundamental elements of the poultry industry and has a multi-factor structure where the microclimatic conditions in transportation vehicles are considered to be the most significant factor that causes losses and deaths due to hot and cold stress during transportation. The average live weight shrinkage in all transportations was found to be 5.43% and the mortality rate 0.41%. It was found that average live weight shrinkage increases as the duration of transportation increases, especially duration of 4-8hr causes losses which vary between 4.33%-6.33% and mortality varied between 0.29%-0.46% (Siddharth, 2020) study conducted at CARI.

Chemical Losses

Pale, soft, exudative (PSE) broiler meat is a growing problem for the industry of further processed poultry meat. The low pH condition due to rapid glycolysis while the body temperature is still high leads to protein denaturation, causing pale colour and reduced water-holding capacity. This condition impacts product yield and quality. These conditions were designed as PSE and it was estimated using response surface methodology to characterize the relationship between pH and lightness L* (at deboning and at 24 h post-mortem), i.e, expressible moisture, drip loss, and cook loss of the meat will be evaluated. In PSE condition, the meat will exhibit lower pH, greater L* values at 24 h post-mortem, and also has higher expressible moisture, drip loss, and cook loss. As a result, the meat becomes wet and pale at its surface and has a soft appearance. Conversely, DFD meat is the consequence of depleted muscle glycogen, and it is a post-rigor condition resulting in a relatively higher ultimate pH (pHu) thus the myofibril proteins present higher WHC and the meat surface is dry resulting in dark colour and a firm appearance (Lesiów, 2003).

Microbiological losses in meat 

Mead 2004 indicated that methods of slaughtering affect the chemical and microbiological changes in chicken meat during refrigerated storage. In fact, during and after slaughtering, the bacteria from animal microbiota, the slaughterhouse environment, and the equipment used contaminate carcasses, their subsequent cuts, and processed meat products. Some of these bacterial contaminants can grow or survive during food processing and storage. The resulting bacterial communities present in poultry meat can include pathogenic species such as Salmonella and Campylobacter, the two main pathogens responsible for human gastroenteritis due to poultry meat consumption (Mead, 1977). In addition to foodborne pathogens, bacteria responsible for spoilage may lead to large economic losses (Rouger et al., 2017). Their growth and metabolic activity during shelf life leading to color, odor, taste, or texture defects are responsible for waste and losses of food products and have therefore an important impact on the economy of the poultry meat production sector.

Overall Economic Impact due to post harvest loses.

The highest contribution in the economic loss was by livestock produce (21.70%) poultry meat, milk, marine fish and inland fish (livestock produce). These commodities are responsible for 67.69 percent of the total loss of ₹ 1,52,790.42 crore. The total monetary loss is 2.35 percent of national GDP for 2021-2022 (NABCONS-2022).

Corrective measures

Post-harvest infrastructure of the egg and poultry meat can be minimized by implementing standard corrective measures. Live shrink loss results due to various stressors to which the broilers are exposed to during transportation. Hence, attempts were made to ameliorate the stress and reduce the live shrink loss by any one of the following methods:

Farm level measures

i. Administration of B complex vitamins in drinking water @ 20 g / 5000 birds three hours before catching (a commercial product containing B2 - 1.2 mg, B6 - 0.62 mg, B12 – 6.25 mcg, nicotinamide – 25 mg and D - panthenol – 0.62 mg per g was employed).

ii. Ascorbic acid in drinking water @ 10 mg / kg body weight three hours before catching.

iii. Sodium salicylate @ 25 mg / kg body weight in drinking water three hours before catching. Live shrink loss (%) in the above groups were compared with that in control group of broilers lifted from the same location.

● Promotion of ‘grow out houses’ (cage free and ventilated barns) leading to reduced stocking densities and other welfare problem associated with cages.

● Mechanical grader and sorters need to be promoted at farm level for eggs.

● Sustainable food packaging: The Egg Guardian, is a conceptual package design for eggs, aimed at reducing waste. The product is reusable, and made from aluminum due to its recyclable qualities, durability, and ability to be easily cleaned. 

● Promotion of integrated units (slaughter, storage and processing) rather than standalone facilities (slaughter only) at farm level so that safe storage can take place in case when immediate disposal is not possible.

● Need of cold storage units at farm level for eggs.

● Increasing the availability of reefer vans.

 Market level measures

● Promotion of cold storage facilities at retailer level.

● Country wide expansion of modern retail stores like FIPOLA retail stores prevalent in southern states of India with well managed backward integration.

● Promotion of retail shops inspired by western countries with two sections, first section with live butchery, where the customers can choose the product and get it cut and packed freshly. Second section with pre-cut meats, marinated meat products, cold cuts, sausages and imported

meat.

● Country wide expansion of modern and automatic processing units like those present in Venky’s along with installation of modern equipment.

● Promotion of modified atmosphere packaging, vacuum packaging and category-based packaging to increase shelf life of products and to prevent loss during transport.

● Setting up fly proof poultry dressing units at retail level with facilities for packing.

● Better conditions of roads and increasing the availability of reefer vans for long haul transport.

iii. Training and capacity building

● Acquaintance with equipment, demonstrations of slaughtering of birds and handling of eggs through extension activities supported by farmers’ cooperatives to impart skill among labourers

iv. Policy advocacy

● Capacity expansion for abattoirs-cum meat processing plants all over India with support of local municipal authorities.

● Need to increase eggs processing capacity.

● Supporting collectivization of smallholders through co-operatives and producer companies to ensure the supply of inputs and to facilitate and enable market linkages.

● Creation of an institutional framework and policies for utilisation of the food waste into value added products.

Bio-Diesel from Chicken Waste: Process, Economics, Implementation

In south India where poultry population is more, especially in Namakkal dist. of Tamil Nadu which is called Poultry Hub of India. The daily mortality of these farm accounts to about 60-90 birds per farm. These birds used to be brought to the Veterinary College for post-mortem. Since the bio-secure disposal of these birds was a daunting task, the college established a rendering plant which could convert this waste into carcass meal and Rendered Chicken Oil (RCO). Carcass meal was used as pet feed ingredient and biofertilizer.

Describe the process of producing bio-diesel from chicken slaughter waste?

After collecting the broiler slaughter waste, (including feathers, viscera, shank and head) from chicken shops, the process called ‘dry rendering’ (The waste material is first dry cooked, then steam sterilized i.e. 130° C at 2 bar pressure and then moisture reduced to 10%) starts to transform it into carcass meal a valuable feed ingredient for pets and fishes. After that chicken oil a byproduct of rendering is converted to biodiesel in a twostep chemical reaction called ‘acid catalysed esterification of Free Fatty Acids’ and then ‘transesterification of triglycerides’.

Wealth from Waste’: Chicken slaughter waste which used to cause pollution and threat to human health in the wake of emerging diseases, can be transformed into three valuable products without producing further waste.

• Bio-diesel a renewable biofuel which can drastically reduce engine emissions
• Chicken carcass meal a protein feed supplements fork animal approved by FDA, and
• Glycerol, which finds variety of application in pharmaceuticals baking and industry.
• The value of these products especially since the diesel price is sky rocketing can produce additional income to supplement the poultry industry for profit and sustainability.

Mobile Poultry Processing Unit as a Resource for Small Poultry Farms

 

Mancinelli et al., 2018, Italy

Mobile Poultry Processing Unit (MPPU) mounted on a small truck or van which goes directly to the poultry farms. A MPPU is excluded from continuous inspections by the Food Safety Authorities but it is still required to meet all sanitation and requirements. These MPPUs are designed to eliminate regulatory impasses and increases marketability and profitability for small-farmers. The MPPU reaches the farm directly on the day of slaughtering and then another advantage is the absence of transport of live animals to the slaughterhouse. This positively influences animal welfare and meat quality. The MPPU must be built with materials and equipment that are easy to clean by Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP) and there must be adequate site management and appropriate personnel hygiene and clothing. Personnel operating in the MPPU must be trained in slaughter procedures and a proper HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) plan needs to be implemented in the MPPU. Chilling and storage of carcasses and meat must take place immediately in the MPPU or on the farm. If chillers, generally static chillers, are available on the farm, they must be placed near the MPPU and a suitable system for protecting the carcasses during transport from the slaughter site to the chiller needs to be adopted to avoid exogenous contamination. Animal by-products must be managed according to Regulation EC 1069/2009. Cleaning and disinfection of the MPPU must be performed at the end of each slaughtering session, either at the farm or in a specific staging area. Meat must be labelled with the date of slaughter, farm code and farm address.

 

Conclusion:

A large number of wastes from rapidly increasing poultry production can be converted precisely into wealth with better monetary benefits. The reduction in post-harvest loss not only help in monetary benefit but also helps to counter the challenge of ever-increasing protein demand with sustainable farming

Way Forward:

• Research emphasis on the topic related to Post harvest loss in poultry

• Cold chain maintenance is poor in India so policy intervention from government side is highly needed.

• Emphasis on strong extension campaign for consumer awareness regarding safe and clean production.

• Scientific training to poultry producer as well intermediate.

• Emphasis on Value addition - Entrepreneurship